All microtu- oles act in forming cilia and flagella p. This radiat- ing pattern of stiff microtubules determines the overall shape Cytoplasmic Inclusions of the cell, as well as the distribution of cellular organelles. Inclusions are temporary structures in the cytoplasm that may Mitochondria, lysosomes, and secretory granules attach to or may not be present in a given cell type.
Inclusions include the microtubules like ornaments hanging from the limbs of a pigments, crystals of protein, and food stores. The food stores, Christmas tree. Organelles move within the cytoplasm, pulled by far the most important kind, are lipid droplets and gly- along the microtubules by small motor proteins, kinesins ki- cosomes. Lipid droplets are spherical drops of stored fat.
Microtubules are remark- distinguished by their lack of a surrounding membrane. Only ably dynamic organelles, constantly growing out from the cell a few cell types contain lipid droplets: Small lipid droplets are center, disassembling, then reassembling. Glycosomes also contain enzymes the cytoplasm near the nucleus Figure 2. It contains no that make and degrade the glycogen into its glucose subunits. In our manufacturing analogy, the nucleus can be compared to a central library, design department, construction superintendent, and board of directors all rolled into one.
The presence of more than one nucleus usually signifies that a cell has a larger-than-usual amount of cytoplasm to regulate. One cell type in the body, the mature red blood cell, is anucleate; that is, it has no nucleus at all. Its nucleus normally is ejected before this cell first enters the bloodstream. Although it is usually spherical or oval, it generally conforms to the a Microtubules overall shape of the cell.
If a cell is elongated, for example, the nucleus may also be elongated. The main parts of the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and chromatin and chromosomes Figure 2. Nuclear Envelope The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope that con- sists of two parallel membranes separated by a fluid-filled space Figure 2.
The outer membrane is continuous with the rough ER and has ribosomes on its external face. It forms anew from rough ER after every cell division, so it is evidently a specialized part of the rough ER. The inner membrane is lined by protein filaments, the nuclear lamina, b which maintain the shape of the nucleus Figure 2.
At various points, the two layers of the nuclear envelope Figure 2. Its wall and b. Like other cellular membranes, the membranes of the nuclear envelope are selectively permeable, but the pores allow Structurally, glycosomes are dense, spherical granules.
They large molecules to pass in and out of the nucleus as necessary. For example, protein molecules imported from the cytoplasm and RNA molecules exported from the nucleus routinely travel check your understanding through the pores.
Which cellular organelles are involved with protein The nuclear envelope encloses a jellylike fluid called synthesis and packaging? Which organelle produces the energy needed for nucleolus are suspended. Like the cytosol, the nucleoplasm cellular activity? Which organelle would be prevalent in a cell that specialized in phagocytosis? There may be one For answers, see Appendix B. A nucleolus contains parts. Surface of nuclear envelope. Nuclear pores. Fracture line of outer membrane. Nuclear pore complexes.
Each pore is ringed by protein particles. Nuclear lamina. The netlike lamina composed of intermediate filaments formed by lamins lines the inner surface of the nuclear envelope. This double helix is in turn composed of four and serves as the site where the large and small subunits of kinds of subunits called nucleotides, each of which contains ribosomes are assembled.
These subunits leave the nucleus a distinct base. Hydrogen bond. DNA is a double helix constructed of chains of nucleotide molecules. Each 3 Condensed nucleotide consists of a sugar, phosphate, and one of four chromatin; a tight bases: thymine T , adenine A , cytosine C , or guanine G. The DNA molecule plus the in metaphase proteins form chromatin.
Each cluster of DNA and sister chromatids histones is called a nucleosome. In an electron micrograph of chromatin, the nucleosomes have the appearance of beads on a b string. Chromatin in this form is called extended chromatin. Further coiling of the nucleosomes forms a tight helical fiber.
These thick fibers of chromatin are called condensed chro- b The arrangement of DNA and histones in chromatin, from matin. The tightly coiled DNA of condensed chro- matin is inactive. The extended chromatin is the active region and then packed further into the most complex struc- of the DNA, directing the synthetic activities of the cell. Each chromosome con- genetic code is copied onto messenger RNA molecules in tains a single, very long molecule of DNA, and there are a process called transcription.
The most active cells in the 46 chromosomes in a typical human cell. When a cell is body have a large amount of extended chromatin and little dividing, its chromosomes are maximally coiled, so they condensed chromatin. Chromosomes move During cell division, the chromatin is further packed: extensively during cell division pp.
When cell division stops, many parts of the chromosome uncoil to form the extended chromatin, thereby allowing transcription to occur. G1 checkpoint check your understanding restriction point Interphase. What is Mitosis. Cy the difference in function between these forms of Pr op.
Anap ha. The cell life cycle is the series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until it reproduces itself.
This cycle can be divided into two major periods Figure 2. The two basic phases in the in which the cell grows and carries on its usual activities; and life and reproduction of each cell are interphase and the cell division, or the mitotic phase, during which it divides into mitotic M phase.
The length of the cell cycle varies in two cells. Interphase In addition to carrying on its life-sustaining activities, a cell in interphase prepares for the next cell division. During G1 gap 1 , Cell division is essential for body growth and tissue repair. This is the most of the skin and the intestinal lining, reproduce themselves variable phase in terms of duration.
In cells with fast divi- almost continuously. Others, such as liver cells, reproduce sion rates, G1 lasts several hours; in cells that divide slowly, slowly replacing those cells that gradually wear out but it can last days or even years. Near the end of G1, the centri- can divide quickly if the organ is damaged. Cells of nervous oles start to replicate in preparation for cell division. During tissue and, for the most part, skeletal muscle are unable to the next stage, the S synthetic phase, DNA replicates itself, divide after they are fully mature; repair is carried out by scar ensuring that the two daughter cells will receive identical tissue a fibrous connective tissue.
The final part of interphase, Cells divide in the M mitotic phase of their life cycle, called G2 gap 2 , is brief. In this period, the enzymes needed which follows interphase Figure 2. In most cell types, for cell division are synthesized. The cell is now ready to divide. Mitosis Checkpoints that evaluate cellular activities such as cell Mitosis is the series of events during which the replicated DNA growth, DNA replication, and mitotic spindle formation occur of the original cell is parceled out into two new cells, culminating throughout the cell cycle.
The G1 checkpoint assesses cell in the division of the nucleus. Indeed, mitosis lit- for DNA damage and accuracy of replication Figure 2. Mutation in genes at these telophase. However, it is actually a continuous process, with checkpoints can cause uncontrolled cell division and lead to each phase merging smoothly into the next. Its duration varies tumor growth.
Mitosis is described in detail in Focus on Mitosis Figure 2. Text continues on page Together with cytokinesis, it produces two identical daughter cells. Interphase Early Prophase Late Prophase. Centrosomes each Plasma Early mitotic Spindle Nonkinetochore microtubule has 2 centrioles membrane spindle pole Fragments of nuclear envelope Aster. Nucleolus Chromatin Centromere Chromosome Nuclear consisting of two Kinetochore Kinetochore envelope sister chromatids microtubule.
Interphase Prophase—first phase of mitosis. Interphase is not part of mitosis. The chromatids separate, each will be a new centromere. Such microtubules are called nuclear envelope and one or more nucleoli are chromosome. As the microtubules lengthen, chromosome from both poles in a tug-of-war The light micrographs show dividing lung cells from they propel the centrosomes toward opposite that ultimately draws the chromosomes to the a newt.
Fluorescent markers color cell structures. The red fibers are intermediate extend from the centrosome matrix. The schematic drawings show details not visible in the micrographs. For simplicity, only four chromosomes are drawn. Nuclear Nucleolus forming Contractile Spindle envelope ring at forming cleavage furrow. Metaphase Daughter plate chromosomes. Metaphase—second phase of mitosis Anaphase—third phase of mitosis Telophase—final phase of mitosis.
Each movement stops. This final phase is like the cell, with their centromeres precisely chromatid now becomes a chromosome in its prophase in reverse. This imaginary own right. A daughter cells. Cytokinesis such as hormones or mucus, are activated only in certain The separation of one cell into two at the end of the cell populations.
Essentially, a ring of contrac- Cell specialization, also called cell differentiation, tile actin and myosin filaments in the center of the original leads to structural variation among the cell types in the cell constricts to pinch that cell in two.
The two new cells, body. Different organelles come to predominate in dif- called daughter cells, then enter the interphase part of their ferent cells. For example, muscle cells make tremendous life cycle. Phagocytic cells produce more lysosomal check your understanding enzymes and contain many lysosomes. The shapes of the terms anaphase, metaphase, and telophase? Cells fall into mitosis? Some epithelial cells are gland Cell Differentiation cells, with an abundant rough ER, Golgi apparatus, and All humans begin life as a single cell, the fertilized egg, secretory granules.
Early in embry- Erythrocyte red blood cell. This cell carries the onic development, the cells begin to specialize: Some respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Its con- become liver cells; some become nerve cells; others become cave disc shape provides extra surface area for the the transparent lens of the eye.
Every cell in the body carries uptake of respiratory gases. This streamlined shape the same genes. A gene, simply speaking, is a segment of also allows the cell to flow easily through the blood- DNA that dictates a specific cell function, usually by coding stream. So much oxygen-carrying pigment is packed for a specific protein. If all our cells have identical genes, in erythrocytes that all other organelles have been how do cells differentiate and take on specialized structures shed to make room.
These cells are exposed to different chemical signals that channel the cells elongated and filled with abundant actin and myosin fila- into specific pathways of development.
The cytoplasm of ments, so they can shorten forcefully. In the c Cell that stores nutrients early days of development as the fertilized egg divides, Fat cell. The huge spherical shape of a fat cell is produced the cytoplasm of each daughter cell receives a different by a large lipid droplet in its cytoplasm.
These maternally derived d Cell that fights disease molecules in the cytoplasm influence the activity of the Macrophage a phagocytic cell. This cell extends long embryonic genome. In this way, different genes are acti- pseudopods to crawl through tissue to reach infection vated in each cell, leading to cellular differentiation. Once sites. The many lysosomes within the cell digest the the cell-specific gene expression begins, a cell may pro- infectious microorganisms it takes up.
This cell has long processes for all cells must carry out protein synthesis and make ATP. The processes are covered with. Most organs are well formed and functional long before birth, but the body continues to grow by forming more cells throughout childhood and adolescence.
Once Erythrocytes adult size is reached, cell division slows considerably and occurs primarily to replace short-lived cell types and to Fibroblasts repair wounds. Aging There is no doubt that cellular aging occurs and that it accounts Epithelial cells for most problems associated with old age.
Although aging is complex and certainly the result of many mechanisms, a Cells that connect body parts, form linings, or transport the best-documented theory proposes that free radicals play gases the major role. These highly reactive and thus destructive molecules are primarily by-products of normal cellular metabolism, although they also form in response to external Skeletal insults, such as radiation and chemical pollutants.
The theory muscle Smooth proposes that free radicals build up and progressively dam- cell muscle cells age the essential cell molecules.
Most evidence for this comes from experiments on less complex animals such as worms and fruit flies, in which neutralizing the free radicals b Cells that move organs and body parts and repairing their damage have been shown to increase life span. Vitamins E and C appear to act as antioxidants in the Macrophage human body and may help to prevent excessive free-radical formation.
Fat cell Most free radicals are produced in the mitochondria, the organelle with the highest rate of metabolism. Scientists propose that a decrease in energy production by free-radical- damaged mitochondria weakens and ages the cells.
This is c Cell that stores nutrients d Cell that fights disease called the mitochondrial theory of aging. The same finding has also been demonstrated in primates. Because caloric restriction lowers the metabolic rate and makes metabolism more efficient, fewer of the destructive free radi- Nerve cell cals are produced, and aging slows.
Genetic theories of aging propose that aging is programmed into our genes. These theories originated e Cell that gathers information and controls body functions from the observation that the body ages in a predictable pattern, as if aging were a normal part of human devel- opment and development is known to be controlled by genes. Rats and fruit flies can be bred to live longer than Sperm usual, and genes that increase and decrease longevity f Cell of reproduction have been identified in animals.
Although some of these genes work by influencing free radicals, others act in less Figure 2. Note that cells are not drawn understood ways.
The best evidence for planned senescence programmed aging involves telomeres, structures that limit the maxi- mum number of times cells can divide. This cell is long and streamlined for swim- bit shorter. When the telomeres reach a certain minimum ming to the egg for fertilization. Telomerase is an motile whip called a flagellum p. Telomerase occurs in our. In the near future, tests to measure telo- produce and secrete hormones? Unlike cancer cells, hyperplastic cells retain their are stressed, unneeded, excessive, or aged.
In response to dam- normal form and arrangement within tissues. The apoptotic cell shrinks without leak- Hypertrophy differs from hyperplasia, the condition in which ing its contents into the surrounding tissue. It detaches from cells increase in number but not in size. This tidy sequence avoids inflammation p. Cancer cells fail to undergo apoptosis, but Death of a cell or group of cells due to injury or disease. Acute oxygen-starved cells do so excessively heart-muscle and brain injury causes the cells to swell and burst, and they induce cells during heart attacks and strokes, for example.
This is accidental, uncontrolled cell death, in contrast to apoptosis. Most proteins in the membrane are integral proteins and extend Quizzes, Practice Tests, entirely through the membrane. Sugar groups of membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids project from the cell surface and contribute to the cell coat glycocalyx , which functions in cell-to-cell binding and recognition. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life.
The plasma membrane functions as a fragile barrier to protect the 2. There are 50 to trillion cells in the human body. This chapter cell contents. It determines what enters and leaves the cell, and emphasizes the features common to all cells.
Cells obtain nutrients, make molecules, dispose of wastes, main- extracellular signal molecules. Each cell has three main regions: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, 9. Small uncharged molecules pass through the membrane by simple and nucleus. The fluid diffusion. Movement against the concentration gradient is active mosaic model interprets this membrane as a flexible bilayer of transport, a process that requires the use of energy.
Large particles and macromolecules are actively transported cytoskeleton and microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The centri- through the membrane by endocytosis and exocytosis. Endocytosis oles are barrel-shaped structures with walls of short microtubules. Inclusions are temporary structures in the cytoplasm. Examples solved molecules in the extracellular fluid, the process is known as include food stores, such as lipid droplets and glycogen-containing pinocytosis.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is selective: Specific glycosomes. The nucleus contains genetic material DNA and is the control In exocytosis, membrane-lined cytoplasmic vesicles fuse with the center of the cell. Most cells have one centrally located nucleus plasma membrane and release their contents to the outside of the cell.
The nucleus is surrounded by a selectively permeable nuclear envelope, which is penetrated by nuclear pores. These pores allow The cytosol is a viscous fluid containing water, dissolved ions, and the passage of large molecules such as RNA and proteins into and enzymes; cytoplasmic organelles and inclusions are suspended in out of the nucleus.
The nuclear envelope is continuous with the the cytosol. Each organelle performs specific functions. The various cell types A nucleolus is a dark-staining body within the nucleus containing in the body have different numbers of each organelle type.
Nucleoli make the subunits of Ribosomes are dark-staining granules that consist of two subunits, ribosomes. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis translation. The DNA molecule is a double helix consisting of four types of nucleotides, with bases of thymine, adenine, cytosine, and guanine. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is a ribosome-studded system of membrane-walled cavities cisterns.
Its ribosomes make proteins, Chromatin is strandlike material DNA and histones in the which enter the cisterns and which may ultimately be secreted by nucleus that forms chromosomes.
During cell division, all chro- the cell. In nondividing cells, the chromatin is a mixture of inactive, The smooth endoplasmic reticulum, a network of membrane-walled coiled regions condensed chromatin and active, uncoiled regions tubules containing no ribosomes, is involved in the metabolism of extended chromatin.
Smooth ER also stores calcium ions. It sorts the products of The cell life cycle is the series of changes a cell experiences from the rough endoplasmic reticulum and then sends these products, in the time it forms until it divides. Lysosomes and secretory granules arise from the Golgi apparatus. Interphase is the nondividing phase of the cell life cycle. It consists Lysosomes are spherical, membrane-walled sacs of digestive of the subphases G1, S, and G2.
During G1, the cell grows; during S, enzymes. They digest deteriorated organelles and substances DNA replicates; and during G2, the final preparations for division brought into the cell in membrane-bound vesicles. Mitochondria are threadlike organelles covered by two mem- branes, the inner of which forms shelflike cristae.
Cell division, essential for growth and repair of the body, occurs during the M mitotic phase. Cell division has two distinct Peroxisomes are membrane-walled, enzyme-containing sacs that aspects: mitosis and cytokinesis. They convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide. They also use hydrogen peroxide to break Mitosis, the division of the nucleus, has four stages: 1 prophase, down some organic poisons.
Actin microfilaments interact with myosin to and the nucleus reassembles. Mitosis parcels out the replicated produce contractile forces. Intermediate filaments, which act to chromosomes to two daughter nuclei. Cytokinesis, completed after resist tension placed on the cell, are stable. Microtubules, which mitosis, is the division of the cell into two cells. Both microtubules and microfilaments pp. The centrosome is a spherical region of cytoplasm near the The first cell of a human is the fertilized egg.
Cell differentiation nucleus. It consists of a cloudlike matrix surrounding a pair of cen- begins early in development and is thought to reflect differential trioles.
Proteins in the matrix anchor the long microtubules of the gene activation. There are about different cell types in the human body. Aging of cells and of the whole body may reflect accumulated ent organelles dominate in different cell types Figure 2.
During adulthood, cell numbers remain fairly constant, and cell process, or both. It may also reflect a loss of the capacity for cell division occurs primarily to replace lost cells. Name the cytoskeletal element actin microfilaments, intermediate filaments, or microtubules for each of the following.
Different organelles are abundant in different cell types. Match the 4. The fundamental bilayered structure of the plasma membrane is cell types with their abundant organelles by placing the correct let- determined almost exclusively by a phospholipid molecules, ter from column B into each blank in column A.
Follow the hints b peripheral proteins, c cholesterol molecules, d integral proteins. Identify the cell structure or organelle described by each of the Column A Column B following statements. Identify the false statement about centrioles. Which of the following cells can store nutrients? Short Answer Essay Questions 7. The trans face of the Golgi apparatus a is its convex face; b is List all the cytoplasmic organelles that are composed at least in where products leave the Golgi apparatus in vesicles; c receives part of lipid-bilayer membranes.
Then list all the cytoplasmic transport vesicles from the rough ER; d is in the very center of organelles that are not membranous. Martin missed a point on his anatomy test because he thought 8. Identify the false statement about lysosomes. From which microbe did mitochondria arise?
What is the reason in phagocytic cells. Which of the following events does not take place during mi- How is DNA, which in its uncoiled form is quite long, packed inside a tosis? Indicate which cellular organelle or organelles participate in each another. Name the parts of a cell in which the following organelles exist: a 3. The normal function of one tumor-suppressor gene acting at the centrioles, b microtubules, c nuclear envelope, d chromatin. G1 checkpoint is to prevent cells with damaged chromosomes and What are their functions?
Explain what the phrases in quotations mean. Application Questions 4. When James was diagnosed with lung cancer, the oncologist ex- isms. Which organelle is found abundantly in such cells, and what plained to him how the disease can spread throughout the body as is its importance?
Based on what you know about 5. The sedative phenobarbital is a lipid-soluble drug. What may telomeres, explain why cancerous cells grow uncontrollably. Kareem had a nervous habit of chewing on the inner lining of his drug for a period of time? The lip grew thicker and thicker from years 6. The drug vinblastine is used in cancer therapy to stop the runaway of continual irritation. Vinblastine inhibits the assembly and growth ened lip, then told him to have it checked to see if the thickening of microtubules.
Explain how the action of this drug prevents mitosis was a tumor. A biopsy revealed hyperplasia and scattered areas of refer to Figure 2. What do these terms mean? Did Kareem have cancer of the mouth? I n just 38 weeks, from conception to birth, a single fertilized egg cell develops into a fully formed human being.
The body will not change this much again during its remaining life span of 70 to 90 years. This chapter introduces you to human embryology, the study of the origin and development of an individual person. A knowledge of basic embryological events and structures is especially valuable as you begin your study of human anatomy.
By knowing how the body methodically assembles itself, you will better understand adult anatomy. It is divided into two stages Figure 3. Fertilization 1-week 3-week 5-week embryo conceptus embryo 10 mm 3 mm 8-week embryo 22 mm. Duration: First 8 weeks postfertilization Major events: Organs form from three primary germ layers. The basic body plan emerges. Fetal period 38 weeks Duration: Weeks 9—38 or birth Major events: Organs grow in size and complexity.
Figure 3. The embryonic period is an These two tubes are separated by a serous cavity. In the exceptionally busy one. By its end, all major organs are in abdomen, this cavity is the peritoneal cavity.
In the longer fetal period that follows, the 1. Outer body wall. Dorsally, it also contains the verte- learning outcome bral column, through which the spinal cord runs. Body cavity and inner tube. The inner tube is composed To simplify the treatment of embryology, this chapter of the respiratory and digestive structures see Figure 1.
In Figure 3. The basic body plan can be described as a tube shows the peritoneal cavity, lined by visceral and parietal within a tube Chapter 1, p. This basic plan is evi- serosae, surrounding the digestive tube stomach, intes- dent by month 2 of development Figure 3.
The outer tines, and so on. The digestive tube has a muscular wall body wall makes up the outer tube and the inner tube in and is lined internally by a sheet of cells.
This lining is shown in yellow in Figure 3. In the thoracic region, the body plan is similar. However, the term embryo can be used respiratory structures form from the inner tube.
The informally to encompass all stages in the embryonic period. The development of this body plan is traced in this chapter. The blue, red, and yellow colors denote derivation from the three basic embryonic germ layers. See the discussion on pp. Parietal and visceral serosae line these an immature egg, called an oocyte Figure 3. This cell is cavities as well. These relationships were introduced normally drawn into a uterine tube fallopian tube , which in Chapter 1, p.
Fertilization of 4. Kidneys and gonads. The kidneys lie directly deep to an oocyte by a sperm generally occurs in the lateral third of the dorsal body wall, in the lumbar region of the back the uterine tube. The fertilized oocyte, now called a zygote posterior to the parietal serosa. Along the ovaries originate in a similar position but migrate to way, it divides repeatedly to produce two cells, then four other body regions during the fetal period.
Because there is not much time for cell growth between divisions, the resulting cells 5. The limbs consist mostly of bone, muscle, and skin. This early division sequence, You can see how this adult body plan takes shape by follow- called cleavage, provides the large number of cells needed ing the events of month 1 of human development. During day 4, the late morula—now consisting established? Which abdominal structures form from the inner tube? Using directional terms Table 1. Two distinct types of cells are obvious in the blastocyst stage Figure 3.
A cluster of cells on one side of the blasto- For answers, see Appendix B. Actual dates vary by 1—2 days or more among different pregnancies. Uterus Blastocyst Ovulation cavity Endometrium Inner cell mass. Cavity of uterus. Finally, the blastocyst implants development. The ovary, uterus, it undergoes fertilization to become a into the wall of the uterus e , as shown and uterine tubes, which lie in the zygote a. Then, as it moves through in detail in the next figure.
An egg oocyte is released into it passes through the four-cell stage reveal the inside. This chapter focuses on the inner cell mass and the embryo; the Worldwide, the birth rate for identical twins is approximately trophoblast and placenta are discussed along with the female 4 per births.
This into the wall of the uterus Figure 3. This process, called phenomenon is caused by incomplete division of the implantation, takes about a week to complete. In implan- inner cell mass or embryonic disc during the twinning tation, the trophoblast layer erodes inward until the entire process. The twins may be joined at any body region and blastocyst is embedded in the uterine wall. Some can be separated successfully In some pregnancies, the inner cell mass of a single by surgery; others live fulfilling lives with their conjoined blastocyst splits into two during the early stages of cleav- sibling.
Extensions of these cell sheets form two fluid- Trophoblast filled sacs Figure 3. Brady, Jon B. A functional approach to human anatomy Human Anatomy, the 1 best-selling textbook for the human anatomy course, is widely regarded as the most readable and visually accessible book on the market.
Using a functional anatomy theme, the text presents human anatomy as a well-illustrated. The book's hallmark strengths - detailed art that teaches better and a. The full text downloaded to your computer With eBooks you can: search for key concepts, words and phrases make highlights and notes as you study share your notes with friends eBooks are downloaded to your computer and accessible either offline through the Bookshelf available as a free download , available online.
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